REPORTS SUMMARY

Chapter 9 Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems


Members:
Reporter 1: Taghoy, Arnulfo G. Jr. - PRESENTED
Reporter 2: Perez, Charry Mariz - PRESENTED
Reporter 3: Ontal, Zara Mae - PRESENTED
Reporter 4: Vale, Jeanette Reyes- PRESENTED
Reporter 5: Hernandez, Maria Edna - NOT PRESENTED ( absent due to fever )


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Part 1:  Taghoy, Arnulfo G. Jr.

TOPIC: Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems



What is artificial intelligence ?

is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents”

  ► “ The science and engineering of making intelligent machines “ -  John McCarthy

Origins of artificial INTELLIGENCE

→ it all began when it was realized that computers could perform problem-solving activities or even greater functions faster, more reliable, way than humans.

→ some other people thinks that it could replace human mental operations

Origins of expert systems

there were two areas research emerged, one is for AI and the other one trying to use human

intelligence ( in the form of expert knowledge) combined with computation to provide fast and

reliable information ( expert systems ). 

Expert systems

is a computer system that emulates the decision-making ability of a human expert.

Expert systems are designed to solve complex problems by reasoning about knowledge,

like an expert, and not by following the procedure of a developer as is the case in

conventional programming


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Part 2:   Perez, Charry Mariz  

The Debate on Computer Intelligence

If computer scientists are to try to replicate intelligence they need to have some idea of what would be considered ‘intelligent’. Two opposing points of view are given:
1. Test of Computer Intelligence (Turing Test)
2. Denies that computers can be intelligent

One of the most influential tests of computer intelligence came from Alan Turing, a British mathematician. Put simply, he suggested that if a person could be fooled into thinking they were having a conversation with another person, when in fact they were conversing with a machine, then the machine could be said to exhibit intelligence. 

One program that was written to interact with a human operator and simulate conversation was called ELIZA, created by Joseph Weizenbaum. 

Searle’s Chinese Room Scenario
The Chinese Room argument, devised by John Searle, is an argument against the possibility of true artificial intelligence. The argument centers on a thought experiment in which someone who knows only English sits alone in a room following English instructions for manipulating strings of Chinese characters, such that to those outside the room it appears as if someone in the room understands Chinese.
Imagine a native English speaker who knows no Chinese locked in a room full of boxes of Chinese symbols together with a book of instructions for manipulating the symbols. Imagine that people outside the room send in other Chinese symbols which, unknown to the person in the room, are questions in Chinese.


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Part 3: Ontal, Zara Mae




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Part 4: Vale, Jeanette Reyes




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Chapter 11: Ethical Dilemma

The British Computer Society serves as a first-class association that is legal that wires organizations, equality and as well as structuring reference for IT professionals and their projects. The organization also implies as a good role model for IT people as to be their inspiration or the replica of a good and standardize organization. The organization gives the members tools to gain professional recognition and stay ahead of the competition in the international industry, use resources to continue professional development and stretch career opportunities, connect with Top people, great ideas and the latest thinking locally, nationally and online and get the chance to connect online with other like-minded members, create groups, collaborate and create projects. If we were given a chance to be one of the groups of BCS, there is no doubt at our approval on joining their group. Due to the fact that it is internationally recognize, the said benefits above are good help for IT individuals. We haven’t been offered any membership application but if ever they would, I think we would very much consider the offer. We believe that the framework is relevant as to its effectiveness since it speaks for the public, legality and quality for its competency and integrity.

ETHICAL DILEMMA – CHAPTER 9

A couple years ago Patricia returned to the UK to take up an academic position at a British University. She had been out in UK for over 20 years working for universities at number of countries, and had a good professional employment record. She decided to open a bank account with one of the large banks that had branch on the campus. She met the bank manager, was given the necessary forms, duly completed them. A few days later she returned to the bank to open her account. Much to her surprise, she was told that she could only have cash account, i.e., she not be given any bank cards, cheque book, or the like, nor could she have any overdraft facility. Patricia again met with the bank manager as she naturally felt there must have been some misunderstanding. Key points here are that she already had a bank account in the UK since her student days (although this had been largely unused during her years away), she owed no money on credit cards or the like, was UK citizen, and had a good track record with bank overseas. In addition, her salary from the university was to be paid into her account each month. Despite her explaining these points, the bank manager was adamant that she could only have cash accounts. When asked to explain this decision, the bank manager indicated that it was not in fact her decision, but a decision made by an expert system. The bank always used this computer technology when making decisions about opening accounts for new clients, and in fact the bank manager could not overrule the restrictions that the expert systems imposed. In short, the expert system was empowered in the decision-making process to such an extent that it actually replaced the human decision-making process. The bank manager went on to explain that the problem was that the expert system had not previously encountered a person with Patricia’s particular background. And the key point to the computer was the extensive years of residency outside the UK.

To   what extent do you think it is appropriate to replace the human decision-making process with the computer technologies such as expert systems?

-     Computer can never replace human as for the fact that human itself created the computer. With these, human decision is still the best option that people got compared to computer technologies. Since computer has only limited functions as for example, the expert system, it has a limited vast of arrays which it can only perform. On the other hand, expert system may consider us intelligent cause it covers the cognitive skills which they also solve problems and create solution. Even though expert system can be considered as useful as that, still human decision-making process is still in tier 1 with the fact that it surpasses the capabilities of how computer functions in solving problem.

During the conversation Patricia asked the bank manager whether she felt that it was appropriate for the expert system to be empowered in this way. The response she obtained was that it was a great idea because computers do not make mistakes. What do you think about this comment?

-       The bank manager should not be reliant to the computer in terms of the situation because it is the first time that the computer encounters that kind of situation and the bank manager should be aware that the computer has only a limited function to do. And even if it is not the first time to encounter that problem, they should have not trust or depend with the situation to the computers because there are no such things as perfect system that can support perfect reasoning. And since it is the first time to encounter that situation, they should check first the system if it functions correctly if they really entrust the situation to the computer in order to make it fair to the customers.

Do computers make mistakes?

-       Indeed, as for the thought, “Nobody is perfect”. It also implies with computers so as human make mistakes so as the computer because there is no perfect system. Systems and applications are made by humans, and human do commit mistakes, so it follows the flow that computers do commit mistakes too.

Is any computerized system free from mistakes?

-       For me I think there is no computerized system free from mistakes because every system has mistakes even if how small of mistakes it is. That is why every system has maintenance because system needs an update and every system needs to be constantly be renewed.

Should we be educating people to believe that computers are infallible?

-       We should not instruct people to believe that computers are reliable because there is no such thing as perfect computer. What we should be educating is that computers are reliable and useful in everyday life since we are in the world which technologies or computers rapidly growing 

What do you think are the ramifications of believing in infallible computerized systems?

-     The consequence of believing that computerized system is infallible is that many people will be dependent on computers, but if the infallible computerized system commits a single error even if it is a tiny error still the effect of this will be big and people will still think that this small error will make their trust be lessen and some of them will not entrust their important chores by using the said system.

An Ethical Dilemma – Chapter 8

Consider Alice, who is a staff member in a computer science department in New Zealand. She applies for a job at a university in the UK and is invited to travel to the UK for three-hour interview. Thus, Alice will have to fly some ten thousand miles each way in order to be present for three hours at the interview. Let us suppose that you are heading the interview committee in the UK, and are therefore Alice’s primary point of contact, Alice send you an e-mail asking whether it would be possible for her to be interviewed using video conferencing facilities. She points out that this will not only save her a huge amount of flying time (at least 20 hours each way), buy also who will alleviate stress and furthermore – as she mentions – avoiding long-haul journey that are not absolutely necessary has a positive impact on the environment. in this respect she points out the significant amount of fuel that will be burnt in transporting her from New Zealand to the UK and on her return journey. She has access to high-quality video conferencing facilities and so does your university in the UK.

You bring this situation to the attention of other members of the interview committee, your head of department, and the like — but find that nobody is particularly willing to make use of video conferencing facilities. This surprises you, especially as after all you are working in a computer science /IT department and therefore had supposed that staff would have been quite willing to embrace new technologies. You mention that costs will be saved in not having to pay Alice’s airfare, and also stress that this is an opportunity to make use of computer technologies to avoid negative impact on the environment(in actual fact it is surprising how much fuel is consumed in supporting Alice’s round-trip-the world trip).

What are your views on the situation? Do you feel that this high lights (even in a small way) the opportunity to reduce environmental damage by using technologies to support communication and therefore avoid unnecessary travel?

do you believe that people should be willing to adapt to the use of such videoconferencing technologies — is this ethical issue? Given a willingness to adapt is it possible to interview process can be carried out in such way as to overcome the possible deficiencies of the technology — so that the candidate is not disadvantaged by not being physically present, and also provide the interview committee with the opportunity to gain a clear impression of Alice?

Answer:

            Yes, people should take advantage of the new technologies. On Alice’s and the committee’s side it would be practical to use video conferencing, they can save money for the plane ticket, fuel for the plane (also helpful to the environment) and avoid long hours travel. It would be practical if they would use such technology during the interview since nowadays most business transactions can be done online or using the new trends of technology. Although it has pros and cons. If the first plan in which Alice has to travel will be pursued then it would be more hassle and since the interviewers are all employees working in the computer science and IT department they should make use of their available facilities. If the second plan would be pursued then it’s more practical than the first one. Alice can avoid long hours of travel and she can be more relaxed since her energy will not be consumed with the long hours of sitting on the plane. The school committee who will interview her can save the money for her plane fare and also time. It can’t be considered as unethical to conduct an interview using videoconferencing since it is the new way of communication especially if both parties are far from each other. Even big companies use this technology in their board meetings (only if the other participants are abroad).

ETHICAL DILEMMA – CHAPTER 7

So far in this chapter we have not paid any particular attention to the impact of ICT on older people – people who have previously lived in a fairly stable environment. Today the momentum of change (in which computer – based technologies play a pivotal role) is ever increasing. Consequently, older people are becoming ever more concerned and bewildered by the constant alterations that are occurring in practically every aspect of their daily lives. Stability is being replaced by instability. As younger people embrace e-mail, cellular phones, text messaging and the like, the older generations see their post offices closing, no longer is there any personal contact at the bank, and who knows for how much longer they will able to use a chequebook?

1.     How do you perceive the ramifications (accept the result of a bad action) of computer-based technologies and the current pace of change impacting on older people?

It may be of a bad effect for the older people because of sudden changes; older people are more of like a traditional type that would like to do things in a personal interaction just to transact with something. Older people may not be in favor with this but they would be able to see how helpful it is to the younger generation especially those who are born with all the technologies around them. They are also having a hard time to adjust and learn new ways because of being used to the traditional ways. It will be of a convenience or of good preposition if ICT can propose something that would be beneficiary to the older people and not of to far from the old ways, somehow like if they could only adjust a system in which it could fit everybody’s needs.

2.      To what extent are they becoming increasingly isolated?

They are being isolated in a sense that they would not let their selves learn and be oriented of the new technology.

3.      Is direct personal contact being gradually eroded?

Yes, because people would prefer not to do it personally and rather do it at the comfort of their homes. 

4.      Perhaps discuss these issues with older person that you know, such as a family member. Identify the issues.

                  With these issues, my father can relate with. In any form of technology my father had always been having a hard time to understand. He would like to know how it works yet he is having a hard time to understand it because of lack of information about the new technology

5.      Have these people gained as a consequence of the proliferation of and reliance we place upon computer- based technologies and the pace of change that has ensued?

      Yes but if it is to discuss about the older once sooner or later they will find technologies beneficiary to all.

ETHICAL DILEMMA – CHAPTER 6

Consider the scenario in which a group of your fellow students approach you to see whether you are interested in participating in a project that is intended to be a commercial venture. The group has come up with a novel approach to obtaining large number of e-mail addresses. This requires the development of some software, and once this is used, it will be possible to develop a very extensive e-mail address list.

Subsequently, this information is to be sold to companies involved in spam advertising. You voice some initial reservations based upon your concern that this may not be entirely legal/ethical. However, you are assured that the software will only be used to obtain e-mail addresses for people who are normally based overseas – specifically in third world countries. Since the team is to be based in the UK and the software is going to be used to locate e-mail addresses that are normally based outside the UK, you are assured that you will be breaking no UK law.

How would you proceed?

I will not participate to the development of the project because it is unethical even if it is considered legal. Obtaining and locating email addresses without the permission of the owner is already unethical.  Gathering a large number of e-mail addresses and  selling them  to the companies that are drawn in spam advertising is also unethical. These things may violate the privacy rights of end users and may possibly harm their computers by opening/running a malicious file. Spam also disturbs people by not soliciting messages sent to any email address indiscriminately to form a large-sized message. In instant messaging, many IM (Instant Messaging) systems offer a directory of users. These information may be gathered and used by the advertisers to send unsolicited messages, which may possibly contain commercial scam-ware, viruses and links for the purpose of click fraud.

Do you consider that this is a legal/ethical undertaking?

Yes, because it does not break any UK law since it’s not part of the country’s jurisdiction. It is not considered ethical because it is obtaining and locating email addresses without the permission of the owner. Also, you are barging to individual’s internet privacy by sending messages or large size of messages without the approval of the owner.

In that case that you are not entirely happy with the possible ethical aspects of this venture (but you are satisfied that you will not be breaking UK law), would you still be willing to participate if the level of remuneration is sufficient? At what point would personal remuneration override any ethical reservations that you may have?

It is an opportunity to have a part-time job. Practicing ethical actions starts from us so if you start your first project unethically, all next the project you will do might start unethically also because you think that there is nothing wrong with it as long as it is legal.  I will disregard this type of project because it does not do any help instead it creates more problems.

Let us suppose that you do become involved in this undertaking but that you subsequently find that the software that you helped to develop is not only being used to locate e-mail addresses that are normally based outside the UK, but in addition e-mail addresses within the UK, and these are being sold on to companies who specialize in spam advertising? Does this compromise your legal position?

In that case, my legal position is compromised because according to what I read, there is a whole web of UK and EU data protection laws and regulations which apply to online privacy and the collection of data and  use of personal data via website. This laws and regulations comprise the Privacy Regulations or The Privacy and Electronic Communications (EC Directive) Regulations 2003. The main feature of internet privacy compliance when collecting personal information online is to acquire an adequate level of approval from the person providing the data but if you fail to do this or you do not get the enough level of consent you can be sued by data subjects or subject to regulatory enforcement action.

Chapter 5 - Ethics Dilemma

Let us suppose that you are employed by a company that develops website for clients. One day your boss presents you with new project. In brief, your company has obtained a contract from a law enforcement agency to develop several websites. These are to act in line with the ‘honeypot’ scenario mentioned in the previous chapter. The project being undertaken by the law enforcement agency is to gather information in relation to individuals who may be ‘interested’ in extreme forms of violence. By developing this website you will be assisting the law enforcement agencies who will gather material in relation to people who peruse the site.

What is your ethical position? 

We could say that we are in the ethical position. As a website developer handling a serious case of project with regards to the law enforcement agencies we are not going to do some violation. Being part of law enforcement team is a big help to our company in gathering accurate information needed in developing the website. It can also help us to enhance our security measures in the websites we are developing. It can be consider as unethical position if we will steal the information we need to develop the website.

Do you think this is an appropriate agenda in terms of invisibility policing the internet?

We take it as a good and appropriate agenda to prevent the criminals from attacking via the internet.

Since your boss has presented you with this brief, in the case that you do not agree with the ramifications of policing the internet in this way, do you have any practical alternative but to undertake the work?

It seemed to be very serious and complicated because it might take us to court hearings. We’ll tell our boss that it may cause a serious case if we’ll take the project.

(Here we assume that your boss is insistent that the work should be carried out by you.) What – if any – real objections do you have?

If the project will help developers and companies to make their websites protected and to detain cyber criminals, then we’ll take the project.

Do you feel this is encroaching upon the liberty of the individual? 

This is a good opportunity to take over; this is an invisible programming, though. It will give us a better understanding what hacking is, and how many people are interested in violence.

Are your views influenced by the nature of the content of the website?

Definitely yes, it gives us a clear view how criminals attack and it gives us the feeling of being superhuman saving the victims against violence.

For example, would your views be any different if the website related directly to terrorism or other forms of political extremism? 

Yes, our views would be completely different if the website is design for the propagation of violence. It is against the humankind and is totally unethical.

To what extent do you think that the internet is currently being policed – not only in terms of monitoring those who enter particular websites or who enter contentious chat room areas or the like?

Nowadays, internet is widely use around the world that even a 5-year-old kid can manipulate. Policing the internet is just the right thing to do to protect the users, especially underage who are doing researches and exploring the internet.

Chapter 4 - Ethical Dilemma

An Ethical Dilemma

As we have discussed, the law relating to copyright provides- at least in principle- a way in which a creative person can gain recompense for their original work, Let us now take a simple example of how this can operate in practice.

Consider the case of Alice who was writing a textbook. She wishes to include in her book material from various sources- particularly a few key diagrams that have previously been published in other books. Some of these are quite old, dating back to the 1930s and 1940s.

In the intervening years, the original publishers of these books have been taken over several times but, following some fairly extensive research, she is finally able to track down the names of companies who currently own the rights of the books from which she wishes to reproduce diagrams. Following this exercises, she contacts these companies, and asks for permission to reproduce diagrams for these works.

The majorities of companies respond and indicate that she can reproduce the diagrams- providing that she pays fee (ranging from £40 through to £2,000 per diagram reproduced). Payment is deemed necessary because, although the diagrams are quite old, the copyright has not expired (typically, copyright for material that is published in a book continues to 70 years after the death of the book’s author). Alice decides that she cannot afford the permissions costs (these total an amount which is fair in excess of the revenue that she will get from her book once it published).

Although copyright serves to reward people for their creative work, in practice this does not always happen. For example, only relatively recently have author’s contracts with publishers contained clauses to the effect that they will receive royalty payments for materials reproduced from their work. Consequently, in the case of old books, there is little, if any, chance that an author (or their estate) will receive any remuneration when original material from their book is reproduced.

With this is mind, Alice decides to scan the relevant diagrams, make a few alterations to them- so they looked a little different- and then use them in her book without having obtained any permissions to reproduce them.

This raises a number of ethical issues. In the case of older books, should publishers require significant fees to be paid to them if material from one of their books is reproduced elsewhere? To what extent should this be underpinned by consideration of fair use? It is reasonable for publishers to require significant amounts of money to be paid in relation to the reproduction of material from an old book- particularly when they know that this will not be passed on the author, or their estate? To what extent is it appropriate to simply make modifications of diagrams, and therefore avoid the payment of permission fees? By the way of a simple example, consider figure 4.3. Let us suppose that this is edited by Alice and reproduced in her book in the form illustrated in Figure 4.4. To what extent (if any) is Alice guilty of plagiarism? One point to note: by not paying permissions fees, it follows that the author will not acknowledge the original source of the diagram- thus, the original creative person does not receive any credit.

To what extent do such consideration apply to software? For example, is it permissible to take another person’s code, make limited modifications to it, and represent it as one’s own work? 

Response

            The act of getting someone else work and modify it without the owner’s permission is already considered as plagiarism. The golden rule can be applied in this situation, which says “Don’t do unto others the things you don’t want others will do unto you.” Even it would cost a lot on Alice’s part to pay for each diagram that she will use, still she should respect the rights of the owner or the publisher who holds the copyright of the book. If Alice can’t afford to pay she need not to modify the diagrams, the best solution to her problem is to study it and make her own diagrams. If she would be able to publish the book, someday another author might want to make her book as a reference and if she did the right thing she would realize the essence of respecting someone’s effort. In software development aspect, it would be very unethical to copy one’s code and modify it. There are nth ways of making your own code and if you just need a reference code you can always study the pattern but don’t copy/modify it unless you have the permission of the owner,

CASE #2

Case 1

Three years ago Diane started her own consulting business. She has been so successful that she now has several people working for her and many clients. Their consulting work included advising on how to set up corporate intranets, designing database management systems, and advising about security. 

Presently she is designing a database management system for the personnel office of a medium-sized company. Diane has involved the client in the design process, informing the CEO, the director of computing, and the director of personnel about the progress of the system. It is now time to make decisions about the kind and degree of security to build into the system. Diane has described several options to the client. Because the system is going to cost more than they planned, the client has decided to opt for a less secure system. She believes the information they will be storing is extremely sensitive. It will include performance evaluations, medical records for filing insurance claims, salaries, and so forth. 

With weak security, employees working on client machines may be able to figure out ways to get access to this data, not to mention the possibility of on-line access from hackers. Diane feels strongly that the system should be much more secure. She has tried to explain the risks, but the CEO, director of computing and director of personnel all agree that less security will do. What should she do? Should she refuse to build the system as they request?

Answer:
First and foremost, Dianne had years of being successful in her profession and she had been through a lot of clients with different problems and with this she already know how to deal with clients with just so concerned with the amount they are about to pay. In this case, there is a high risk for doing a system with less security knowing the content is something confidential. She should refuse doing the project because in the end she would be the one blame for the data loss and to be ethical with her work she should stand for what she think that is good for her and for her client.

Case2

Consider an HCI consultant with extensive experience in evaluating web sites and graphical user interfaces (GUI). She has just received an evaluation contract for a new accounting product made by Company A due to her prior experience with e-commerce site evaluation.
The work involves assessing the training requirements and the usability of the system. During the initial configuration of her usability laboratory she becomes aware that that software she is to evaluate contains a GUI already patented by a rival Company B, which she evaluated several weeks before. Under her contractual arrangements she is not allowed to discuss the evaluation of a product with anyone outside the contract. She therefore has an obligation to Company B not to provide information regarding their product to anyone else without their permission. She has a similar obligation to Company A. Can she continue with the evaluation? If she cannot continue with the evaluation how does she inform Company A of the patent violation? Does she have an obligation to let company B know Company A has copied their GUI?

She may state the problem that is going on on the process of doing the project but she must not state that company A has copied your interface or anything. It might be better not to state names and just state the problem. At the same time she could have asked the different companies if they could change a bit on their interfaces for some confidential reasons.